Designing batteries for space exploration
The challenge of designing batteries for the Europa Lander mission
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“Space, the final frontier… to boldly go where no man has gone before.”
— Captain James T. Kirk, Star Trek
Just as Captain Kirk dreamed of exploring the unknown, engineers dream of powering spacecraft for unknown environments. Space exploration often involves missions to some of the universe’s most inhospitable regions, making robotic spacecraft essential. These spacecraft require reliable power sources, typically provided by energy generators such as photovoltaic solar arrays or radioisotope thermoelectric generators. However, energy generation alone is not always sufficient, particularly during peak power demands. For this reason, energy generators are usually paired with energy storage systems, such as batteries.
Batteries can be categorized as either primary or secondary. Primary batteries are designed for a single use, providing power without recharging, which makes them ideal for space missions where no additional energy generation or storage is available. Examples of planetary probes that used lithium–sulfur dioxide (Li–SO₂) primary batteries include the Galileo and Cassini spacecraft.
Conversely, secondary batteries are rechargeable (e.g., lithium-ion; Figure 1), allowing them to undergo multiple charge–discharge cycles. This capability makes them suitable for extended space missions that require long-term, sustainable energy storage. The European Space Agency's experimental Proba-1 Earth-observation mission in 2001 was the first to use rechargeable lithium-ion batteries in space.
What constraints do batteries face in extreme environments? How do they differ from those used in everyday applications such as smartphones or electric vehicles? How are they designed, and who manufactures them? These are some of the key questions addressed in this article.
We begin by examining the harsh conditions batteries must endure in space, followed by a brief history of batteries used in space missions, along with their performance requirements and design considerations. We conclude with a discussion of spacecraft designed for Europa missions and an overview of companies that manufacture batteries specifically for space applications.
Let's dive in! 🔋
